Study materials- Research Methods

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Quantitative Research methods

1. What are the major classes of quantitative design?

1. Experimental (and Quasi-experimental)

2. Non-experimental

2. What are the 3 criteria of causality?

1. Preceded the effect in time

2. Association between the cause and effect

3. Relationship cannot be due to the influence of a third variable or confounder

3. What are the 3 aspects of experimental design?

1. Manipulation

2. Control/comparison

3. Randomization

4. What are the different experimental designs?

1. Randomized controlled trial (POSTTEST ONLY)

2. Randomized controlled trial (PRETEST-POSTTEST)

3. Cross-Over Design

5. What is a cross-over experimental design?

Sample:

1. Treatment 1 ➡️ washout ➡️ Treatment 2

2. Treatment 2 ➡️ washout ➡️ Treatment 1

6. What is a pretest-posttest randomized controlled trial experimental design?

Measures outcomes before and after experimental and control interventions

7. What are limitations of experimental designs?

1. Not everything can be manipulated

2. Hawthorne Effect

3. Blinding not always possible

4. May be unethical to withhold care

8. What are quasi-experimental designs?

Involves a manipulation but lacks either randomization or control group

9. What are the 2 categories of quasi-experimental designs?

1. Non-equivalent control group design

(Intervention group compared to nonrandomized control group)

2. Within-subjects designs

(One group studied before and after intervention)

10. What are strengths of quasi-experimental designs?

More feasible as compared to a true experiment

11. What are limitations of quasi-experimental designs?

1. More difficult to infer causality

2. Rival explanations for results

12. What are categories of non-experimental designs?

1. Correlational cause-probing research

2. Descriptive correlational designs

3. Univariate descriptive studies

4. Cohort studies

5. Case-control study

13. What is a cohort study?

Investigator identified exposed and none posed groups (cohorts) and follows them forward in time.

- Useful when harmful outcomes occur infrequently

***Exposed and unexposed may begin with different risks of target outcomes (CONFOUNDING)

14 What are strengths of non-experimental designs?.

1. Efficient way to collect large amounts of data when intervention/randomization no possible

2. Does not require artificial provision of exposure

3. Treatments not withheld

15. What are limitations of non-experimental designs?

1. Rival explanations for results

2. Limited ability to infer causality

16. Cross-sectional

Data collection at one time point, or more than one in close succession

17. Longitudinal

1. Data collected at multiple time points over days/months/years

2. Better at showing patterns of changed and at clarifying whether a chase occurred before an effect

3. ATTRITION = loss of participants over time

18. Which is NOT another term for randomization?

A. Random sampling

B. Random allocation

C. Random assignment

D. None of the above

A. Random sampling

19. What are the 4 main aspects of Validity?

1. Statistical Conclusion Validity

2. Internal Validity

3. Construct Validity

4. External Validity

20. Validity

The degree to which inferences made in a study are accurate and well-founded

21. What are ways of controlling extraneous/confounding variables?

1. Constancy of conditions

2. Formal protocol to enhance intervention fidelity

3. Randomization

4. Homogeneity (restricting sample)

5. Matching

6. Statistical control (ex. Analysis of covariance)

22. Statistical conclusion validity

The ability to detect true relationships statistically

23. What are threats to statistical conclusion validity?

1. Low statistical power (ex. low sample size)

2. Weakly defined “cause” - independent variable poorly constructed

3. Low implementation fidelity

4. Poor intervention adherence

24. Internal validity

Extent to which it can be inferred that the independent variable caused or influenced the dependent variable

25. What are threats to internal validity?

1. Temporal ambiguity

2. Selection threat - bias arising from preexisting differences between groups

3. History - other events co-ocurring with the causal factor

4. Maturation - processes that result from passage of time

5. Mortality/attrition - differential loss from groups

26. Construct validity

Key constructs are adequately captured in the study and thus the evidence in a study supports inferences about the constructs that are intended to represent.

27. What are threats to construct validity?

1. Poor construct validity of measurement tools

2. Reactivity to the study situation (Hawthorne Effect)

3. Researcher expectancies

4. Novelty effect

5. Compensatory effects

6. Treatment diffusion or contamination

28. External validity

The extent to which it can be inferred that the relationships observed in a study hold true in other samples or settings (ie. generalizability)

29. What are threats to external validity?

1. Sample that is mom-representative of population

2. Intervention that is difficult to replicate

3. Artificiality of research environment

30. Open-ended questions

1. Allows for more in-depth data

2. Analysis can be difficult and time-consuming

31. Closed-ended questions

1. Greater privacy

2. Less likely to go unanswered

32. Composite psychosocial scales

Used to make fine quantitative discriminations among people

With different attitudes, perceptions, or needs

33. Likert Scales

1. Consist of several declarative statements (items) expressing viewpoints

2. Responses are on ah agree/disagree continuum (usually 5 to 7)

3. Responses to items are summed to compute a total scale score (SUMMATED RATING SCALE)

34. Observation in quantitative studies

1. Structured observations of pre-specifies units (ex. Behaviours, actions, events)

2. Structures in what to observe, how long, and how to record

Methods:

1. Category systems

2. Checklists

35. Bromage Score

Observational rating on a descriptive continuum to test degree of motor block after epidural

36. What are disadvantages of observations?

1. REACTIVITY = Behaviours May be altered by awareness of being observed

2. Observer bias

3. Resources required to gain entry into setting

37. In vivo measurements

Performed directly within or on living organisms (ex. Blood pressure)

38. In vitro measurements

Performed outside the organism’s body (ex. Urinalysis)

39. What are advantages of biophysical measures?

1. Precision

2. Objective

3. Validity

40. What are disadvantages of biophysical measures?

1. Resources required

2. Many factors may affect variability

4. Ethical responsibilities

41. What are the 2 types of biophysical measures?

1. In vivo

2. In vitro

42. Errors of Measurement

Obtained score = True score +/- Error

= Signal +/- Noise

43. Reliability

The extent to which scores are free from measurement errors.

Reliability is consistency of measure, validity is accuracy of measure.

44. Reliability coefficients

0.00 to 1.00

Unsatisfactory < 0.70

Desirable >= 0.80

45. What are the 3 methods of assessing reliability?

1. Test-Retest Reliability

2. Internal Consistency

3. Interrater Reliability

46. Test-Retest Reliability

Administration of the same measure to the same people on two occasions. Check correlation of test scores with retest scores.

47. Internal Consistency

(Cronbach’s a)

Consistency across items in a composite scale. Instrument is administered on one occasion and the relationship between items tested.

48. Interrater Reliability

Similarity between measurements of multiple observers/raters using the same instrument.

49. Instrument Validity

The degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure

50. What are the 4 aspects of instrument validity?

1. Face validity

2. Content validity

3. Criterion-related validity

4. Construct validity

51. Face validity

Refers to whether the instrument looks as though it is measuring the appropriate construct. Based on judgment, no objective criteria for assessment.

52. Content Validity

The degree to which an instrument has an appropriate sample of items for the construct being measured.

53. Content Validity Index (CVI)

- Expert evaluation

- Quantitative measure

- Proportion of items that are highly relevant on a numerical scale

Desired >= 0.8

54. Criterion-Related Validity

The degree to which scores on an instrument are a good reflection of a “gold standard” criterion for the same construct.

55. How is Criterion-related Validity evaluated?

1. Concurrent Validity = correlated with external criterion, measured at the same time

2. Predictive Validity = correlates with external criterion, measured at a future point in time

56. Construct validity

Degree evidence captures the construct of interest. Especially useful for when there is no “gold standard” comparison.

57. How is construct validity evaluated?

Known-groups (Discrimination) Validity

1. Convergent Validity = test correlates with other measures of same construct

2. Divergent Validity = test DOES NOT correlate with measures of other/different constructs

58. How are measurements have both Reliability and Validity?

Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity.

Together the Obtained Score = True Score

59. Statistical Significance

The results from the sample data are unlikely to have been caused by chance.

60. Clinical Significance

The results have practical importance

61. Confidence Intervals (CI)

Range of values within which a population parameter is expected to lie.

The narrower the CI, the more precise the estimate of effect.

62. Relative Risk vs Absolute Risk

Absolute = likelihood event will occur under specific conditions

Relative = likelihood event with occur in a group compared to another group with different behaviours, environments, etc

Clinical significance of a given Relative Risk cannot be made unless you know the Absolute Risk.

63. Number Needed to Treat (NNT)

Number of people that would need to receive the intervention to prevent one additional bad outcome.

Lower baseline absolute risk ➡️ higher NNT

Higher baseline absolute risk ➡️ lower NNT

64. What are the 5 types of reviews?

1. Systematic Review

2. Meta-Analysis

3. Meta-Synthesis

4. Scoping Review

5. Narrative Review

65. What are the 6 steps in conducting a Review?

1. Research Question

2. Sampling of Primary Studies

3. Quality Appraisal of Primary Studies

4. Data extraction

5. Data analysis

6. Evidence Synthesis

66. Systematic Review

Rigorous synthesis of research findings in a particular research question, using systematic sampling and data collection procedures and a formal protocol.

Goals:

1. Reduction of bias and random error

2. Transparency

3. Reproducibility and Verifiability

67. Literature search in a systematic review

1. Detailed and Exhaustive

2. Search strategy shoul reflect focused clinical question

3. High yield expected

68. Data extraction in a systematic review

1. Collect relevant study information

2. Preferably performed in duplicate

69. Analysis in a systematic review

1. Qualitative synthesis (Narrative description) = provides overview of the available studies, common results, discrepancies, etc

2. Quantitative synthesis (Meta-analysis) = only possible if studies are similar enough to be combined statistically

70. Meta-Analysis

1. Statistical process for combining results of multiple studies

2. Attempts to overcome the problem of reduced statistical power in small sample sizes by combining results

3. Results often depicted in a Forest Plot (or Blobbogram)

71. Metasynthesis

Integration and/or comparison of findings from multiple qualitative studies.

Purpose = generate new knowledge

72. Scoping Review

Determines the general state of knowledge related to a specific question and locate gaps in the literature.

Broader scope that a systematic review, but follows an established methodology

73. Narrative Review

1. Depends on authors’ bias

2. Author picks criteria

3. Search any databases, less structures and comprehensive

4. Methods not usually specified

5. Only narrative summary

6. Can’t replicate review

74. Systematic Review

1. Scientific approach to a review article

2. Criteria determines at outset (a priori)

3. Comprehensive systematic search for relevant articles; use of systematic strategy

4. Explicit methods of appraisal and synthesis

5. Meta-analysis

6. Reproducible

75. Clinical practice guidelines development process

1. Establish guideline development group

2. Develop practice recommendations

3. External review

4. Monitoring and Updating

76. What are the 6 Levels of Evidence?

Ia. Meta-analysis or Systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials

Ib. At least one randomized controlled trial

IIa. At least one well-designed controlled study without randomization

IIb. At least one other type of well-designed quasi-experimental study without randomization

III. Well-designed non-experimental descriptive studies, such as comparative or correlation

IV. Expert committee reports or opinions

77. What are types of clinical practice guideline developers?

1. Government agencies (ie. Ontario)

2. Professional Associations (ie. RNAO)

3. Disease or Population-Specific Organizations (ie. Heart&Stroke)

4. International Organizations (ie. WHO)

5. Other Organizations (ie. CAMH)

78. What are challenges with Knowledge Transmission (KT)?

1. Using plethora of terms to describe KT

2. KT engages researchers and knowledge users with different perspectives

3. KT involves a complex set of interactions

4. Successful KT involves practice chance to change outcomes

79. Ethical imperative for Knowledge Transmission (KT)

1. (1/3) of patients DO NOT get treatments of proven effectiveness

2. (3/4) of patients do not have info they need for decision making

3. (1/4) of patients get care that is NOT NEEDED or Potentially harmful

4. (1/2) of physicians DO NOT have evidence they need for decision making

80. Diffusion of innovations (Rogers,1962,2003)

Influential theory that generally assumed to represent or form theoretical foundation of research utilization or KT. Explains the process and spread of an innovation within a social system.

81. What are the 4 main factors that influence diffusion?

1. Innovation

2. Communication (method to inform others)

3. Time (from first knowledge to acceptance/rejection)

4. Social system

82. What are the 5 steps in the process of innovation adoption?

1. Knowledge

2. Persuasion

3. Decision

4. Implementation

5. Confirmation

83. PEST Analysis

Societal Characteristics

1. Political

2. Economic

3. Socio Cultural

4. Technological

84. KT (implementation) Strategies

1. Reminders

2. Educational (written) Materials

3. Educational Outreach

4. Audit & Feedback

85. What is a Tailored Intervention?

Interventions planned after investigating factors that explain current practice and reasons for resistance to change.

- Barriers identified through observation, focus groups, interview, surveys

86. A theoretical integration of qualitative findings is known as a:

Meta-synthesis

87. Can purposive sampling be used in quantitative research?

Yes

88. What is a Type I statistical error?

The rejection of a null hypothesis when it should not be rejected

(False positive)

Risk is controlled by the level of significance (alpha) that is < 0.5 or 0.1

89. Type II Statistical Error

Failure to reject the null hypothesis when it should be rejected.

False negative.

Controlled by ensuring adequate power.

90. Can a low response rate threaten the external validity of quantitative research study?

Yes

91. What are the 4 levels of Measurement?

1. Nominal = data classified into categories (ie. gender, diagnosis)

2. Ordinal = ranked categories (ie. disease stage)

3. Interval = meaningful difference between values (ie. temperature, shoe size)

4. Ratio = Meaningful difference between values within absolute zero (ie. height, fatigue score)

92. Descriptive Statistics

Used to present, organize, and summarize the data from the sample.

1. Univariate statistics

2. Bivariate statistics

93. Inferential Statistics

Used to make inferences about the population from the sample

94. Univariate Descriptive Statistics

Measures of Central Tendency:

1. Mean

2. Median

3. Mode

Measures of Dispersion:

1. Range

2. Standard Deviation (SD)

3. Variance

95. Positively skewed distribution

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96. Negatively skewed distribution

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97. Contingency Table - Bivariate descriptive statistics

A two-dimensional frequency distribution; frequencies of two variables are cross-tabulated.

Cells at intersections of rows and columns display counts and percentages.

Variables Nominal or Ordinal

98. Correlation = Bivariate descriptive statistics

Indicates direction and magnitude of relationship between two variables.

Interval-ratio measures.

Correlation coefficient = Pearson’s r

99. Null Hypothesis

Statistical tests to either reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis.

H0: There is no difference/relationship between the IV and DV.

H1: There is a difference.

100. P<0.05

There is less than 5% chance that the difference is observed given the null hypothesis.

REJECT the null hypothesis

101. P>0.05

There is a greater than 5% chance that the difference is observed given the null hypothesis.

FAIL TO REJECT the null hypothesis.

102. Statistical Power

A measure of the probability that the statistical test will detect significant difference/effect IF ONE EXISTS.

103. How is statistical power determined?

1. Effect size (size of treatment/relationship effect)

2. Alpha level

3. Sample size

Smaller effect size = lower power

Smaller alpha = lower power

Power analysis should be done in advance to determine sample size.

104. Parametric Statistics

For interval-ratio data that are normally distributed.

Ex:

1. T-tests

2. ANOVA

3. Correlation

4. Regression

105. Non-Parametric Statistics

For nominal-ordinal data or non-normally distributed interval-ratio data.

Examples:

1. Chi-squared (x2) Test

2. Mann Whitney U test

106. What is a 95% Confidence Interval?

Confident that the true point estimate lies within this range 95 times out of 100.

107. How do you determine differences in continuous outcomes?

A confidence interval that includes 0 (ie. -0.5 - 4.8) signifies that it is plausible that there is no difference.

108. How do you determine differences in odds ratios and relative risk?

A confidence interval that includes 1 (ie. 0.1-3.2) signifies that it is plausible that there is no difference.

109. Cronbach’s alpha

The mean of all possible split-half correlations. Measures internal consistency.

110. Convergent validity

A form of criterion validity where the criteria includes other measures of the same construct

111. Relative Risk

Ratio of probabilities comparing risk of event among those exposed and not exposed.

Example:

(Risk of event in Treatment Group)/(Risk of event in control group)

112. Odds ratio

Compares the presence to absence of an exposure given already known outcome.

Example:

(Odds of event in Treatment group)/(Odds of event in control group)

113. Triangulation in Quantitative Research

Using multiple measures of an outcome variable to see if predicted effects are consistent.

Ex: Sleep diary + Actigraphy + Polysomnography

Qualitative research methods

1. What does nursing research generally focus on?

1. Recipients of care

2. Providers of care

3. Health system

2. What does Evidence Based Practice (EBP) integrate?

1. Best research practice

2. Clinical expertise

3. Patient characteristics/preferences

4. Healthcare resources

5. Clinical stage, setting, and circumstances

3. What are the limitations of EBP?

1. Some forms of knowledge are marginalized

2. Ignores clinical judgement and context

3. Depends on availability of evidence

4. Application of evidence to individuals is challenging

4. What are the 7 steps in the Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) process?

1. Admit to uncertainty or different approaches may be possible

2. Formulate clinical questions

3. Search relevant evidence

4. Critically appraise the evidence

5. Integrate the evidence with clinical expertise + patient preferences + context

6. Assess the effectiveness of the intervention

7. Disseminate results

5. What are the two key paradigms in nursing research?

1. Positivist/Post-Positivist Paradigm

2. Constructivist Paradigm

6. Positivist Paradigm

QUANTITATIVE = internal validity

1. Research holds personal beliefs and biases in check

2. Assumes findings are not influenced by the researcher

3. Deductive processes

4. Disciplined procedures to test ideas

5. Emphasis on measured, quantitative info

Goal: seeks generalizations

7. Constructivist Paradigm

QUALITATIVE = TRUSTWORTHINESS

1. Reality is not fixed - constructed by researcher + participant

2. Reality exists within a context; many constructions are possible

3. Emphasis on narrative information

RELATIVISM: no process by which the ultimate truth or falsity of the constructions can be determined

SUBJECTIVITY: interpretations of participants are key to understanding the phenomenon of interest

8. What are the phases of Quantitative research?

1. Conceptual Phase

2. Design and Planning Phase

3. Empirical Phase

4. Analytic Phase

5. Dissemination Phase

9. What are the major classes of Qualitative research?

1. Grounded theory

2. Phenomenology

3. Ethnography

4. Generic qualitative approaches

5. Others (eg. narrative inquiry, case study)

10. Generalizability

Quantitative research

The extent to which study findings are valid for those not in the study

11. Transferability

Qualitative research

The extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings

12. What are the 3 steps of formulating a focused clinical question to search for evidence?

1. Start with an initial question

2. Dissect the question into its component parts (PICO)

3. Formulate the focused (PICO) questions

13. PICO(T)

1. Population

2. Intervention/Exposure

3. Comparison

4. Outcome

5. Time

14. What are the levels of evidence?

1. Systematic Reviews

2. Single Randomized Controlled Trial

3. Single Non-Randomized Trial

4. Single Prospective/Cohort Study

5. Single Case-Control Study

6. Single Cross-Sectional Study (survey)

7. Single in-depth qualitative study

8. Expert Opinion, Case Reports, etc

15. Barriers to EBP

1. Limited knowledge and skills

2. Lack of mentors

3. Inadequate resources

4. Insufficient time to engage in the process

5. Lack of inclusion/involvement in decision-making

16. Facilitators of EBP

1. Appropriate knowledge and skills

2. Organizational culture that supports evidence-informed practice and nurses’ participation in it

3. Clinical practice Guidelines and pre-processed evidence

4. Mentorship

17. Conceptual Model

Deals with abstractions, assembled in a coherent scheme.

Represents a more loosely structured attempt to explain phenomena that theories

18. Schematic Model

Visually represents relationships among phenomena and is used in both quantitative and qualitative research.

19. Health Belief Model

Health-seeking behaviour is influenced by a persons’ perception of the THREAT posed by a health problem and the VALUE associated with the actions aimed to reduce the threat.

1. Perceived susceptibility

2. Perceived benefits

3. Perceived barriers

4. Cue-to-Action

5. Self efficacy

20. Health belief model Perceived susceptibility

Implications if one got this illness (medical consequences, social, etc)

21. What are limitations of the Health Belief Model?

1. Doesn’t account for a persons attitudes/beliefs

2. Doesn’t take account of habitual behaviours

3. Doesn’t account for behaviours that are non-health related

4. Doesn’t account for economic or environmental factors

5. Assumes equal access to information on illness or disease

6. Assumes “health” actions are the main goal

22. What are the 4 different theories in Qualitative Research?

1. Substantive Theory

2. Grounded Theory

3. Ethnography

4. Phenomenology

23. Grounded Theory

1. Humans act toward things based on the meanings that the things have for them.

2. The meaning of things is derived from the human interactions.

3. Meanings are handled in, and modified through, and interpretive process.

24. What is the aim of theories and conceptual models?

Aim to describe the phenomena and the relationship ships among them

25. What is a framework?

Provides overall conceptual underpinnings of a study.

Can be based in theory or a conceptual model.

26. What do high quality studies demonstrate?

A fit between the framework and the study design and methods.

27. What are characteristics of Qualitative Research Design?

1. Emic perspective

2. Triangulating various data collection strategies

3. Holistic

4. Immersion of researchers in setting

5. Requires reflexivity

6. Emergent = data generation and analysis proceed together

28. Reflexivity

What we know is based on our subject positions. A critical self-reflection about ones own biases, preferences, and preconceptions.

29. What are the major Qualitative Research Traditions (designs)?

1. Phenomenology

2. Ethnography

3. Grounded Theory

30. Ethnography

Describes and interprets “culture”. Seeks an emic perspective and to reveal tacit knowledge. Assumes culture guides the way people structure their experiences.

DATA SOURCES = wide spread, observations, interviews, focus groups, etc

PRODUCT = in-depth portrait of culture

31. Phenomenology

Focuses on description and interpretation of people’s lived experience

ASKS: what I’d the essence of a phenomenon and what does it mean?

DATA SOURCE: in-depth convos/interviews

MAIN TYPES: Descriptive and Interpretive

32. Descriptive Phenomenology

Describes human experience (Hussert)

BRACKETING = identifying and “parking” preconceived views. Acknowledging and removing biases.

33. Interpretive (Hermeneutic) Phenomenology

Interprets and understands human experience (not just a description) (Heidegger)

1. Bracketing does NOT occur

- biases are not part of interpretation

- biases are used and embraced

2. Supplementary data sources:

- texts, artistic expression

34. Etic perspective

Outsiders view (that of the researcher)

35. Emic perspectives

Insiders view

36. Grounded Theory

Purpose: to generate theory that explains a pattern of behaviour of a defined group of people

Elucidates social processes and social structures.

CONSTANT COMPARISON used for theoretical refinement

37. Descriptive Qualitative Studies

Tend to be eclectic in their designs and methods. Analysis may include content analysis or thematic analysis of narrative data with intent of understanding important themes and patterns.

38. What is an approach to the study of social processes and social structures?

Grounded Theory

39. Which process is associated with descriptive phenomenology?

Bracketing

40. What are the 4 methods of sampling in Qualitative Research?

1. Convenience (volunteer) sampling

2. Snowball (nominated)

3. Purposive (purposeful)

4. Theoretical Sampling

41. Convenience (volunteer) Sampling

Uses the most conveniently available people as participants

42. Snowball (nominated) sampling

Early sample members are asked to refer others who meet the eligibility criteria

43. Purposive sampling

Researchers hand pick the cases that will best contribute to the study.

Can be classified into various types:

1. Maximum variation

2. Homogenous

3. Extreme/deviant

4. Typical

5. Criterion

6. Confirming/Disconfirming

44. Theoretical Sampling

Involves selecting cases/groups who can provide data that helps develop an emerging theory

45. How is Qualitative research sample size determined?

1. Purpose

2. Design

3. Sampling strategy

4. Data quality

5. Other (time, access, etc)

Decisions to stop are guided by DATA SATURATION

46. Sampling by phenomenology

1. Relies on very small samples

2. Participants must have experienced the phenomenon of interest and be able to articulate that experience

3. May also sample artistic or literary sources (interpretive phenomenology)

47. Sampling by ethnography design

1. Mingling many members of culture (“big net” approach)

2. Informal conversations with 25-50 informants

3. Multiple interviews with smaller number of key informants

4. Involves types of artefacts and foco of observation

48. Sampling by Grounded Theory Design

1. Typically 20-30 participants

2. Select participants who can best contribute to emerging theory

Usually begins with PURPOSIVE sampling then adjusted through theoretical sampling.

49. Which type of study would data saturation NOT be used?

Survey

50. Generating data in Qualitative Research

1. Qualitative self-reports

(One-on-one, dudas, focus groups)

2. Unstructured observations

3. Artifacts (objects, documents)

51. Field issues in Qualitative Research

1. Gaining trust

2. Pace of data collection

3. Emotional involvement with participants

4. Reflexivity

52. Common qualitative self-report techniques

1. Unstructured interviews

2. Semi-structured interviews

3. Focus group interviews

4. Others (diaries, photo elicitation, think-aloud methods)

53. Methods of recording unstructured observations

1. Logs (field diaries)

2. Field notes

2.a) Descriptive (observational) notes

2.b) Reflective notes:

- Methodologic notes

- Theoretical (analytical) notes

- Personal notes

54. Trustworthiness

The degree of confidence qualitative researchers have in their data and analysis

Qualitative studies are trustworthy when they accurately represent the experience/phenomenon under study

55. Lincoln and Guba’s Criteria for Trustworthiness

1. Credibility

2. Dependability

3. Confirmability

4. Transferability

56. Credibility

Confidence in the truth of data and interpretations

57. Dependability

Stability of data over time and conditions

58. Confirmability

Objectivity of the data; findings reflect the participants voices and conditions of the inquiry, not solely the researchers biases or perspectives

59. Transferability

The extent to which findings have meaning to others in similar settings

60. Strategies to enhance quality of Qualitative Inquiry during Data Collection

1. Prolonged engagement

2. Persistent observation: intensive focus in salience of data being gathered

3. Reflexivity strategies

4. Comprehensive and vivid recording

5. Audit trail

6. Member checking

61. Audit trail

A systematic collection of documentation and materials, and a decision trail that specifies decision rules

62. Member checking

Providing feedback to participants about emerging interpretations; obtaining their reactions

63. Data triangulation

The use of multiple data sources to validate conclusions

(time, space, and person triangulation)

64. Investigator Triangulation

The use of two or more researchers to make data collection, coding, and analysis decisions

65. Method Triangulation

The use of multiple methods of data collection to study the same phenomenon (eg, self-report + observation)

66. Theory Triangulation

The use of multiple theoretical positions to explore the same phenomenon

67. Negative case analysis

Specific search for cases that appear to discredit earlier hypotheses

Improves quality of qualitative inquiry

68. Inquiry audit

A formal scrutiny of the data and relevant supporting documents and decisions by an external reviewer

Improves quality of qualitative inquiry

69. Things to consider in interpreting research findings

1. Credibility

2. Meaning

3. Importance

4. Transferability

5. Implications

70. Which type of self reporting involve the use of a discussion moderator?

Focus-group interviews

71. Emergent

Qualitative characteristic = data generation and analysis proceed together

72. What are techniques for establishing credibility?

1. Prolonged engagement

2. Persistent observations

3. Triangulation

4. Peer debriefing

5. Negative case analysis

6. Referential adequacy

7. Member Checking

73. What technique establishes transferability?

Thick description

74. What technique establishes dependability?

Inquiry audit

75. What techniques establish confirmability?

1. Confirmability audit

2. Audit trail

3. Triangulation

4. Reflexivity

76. Operational Definition in Quantitative Research

A precise statement of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measurable variable

77. What are the 2 classes of quantitative research?

1. Experimental

2. Non-Experimental

78. What is a paradigm?

Perspectives of the real world

Thanks

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